1. The atoms

CHONX STIX

Magnetic modelling blocks for crystals, molecules and other structures

 © 2015 Andrew Vecsey. All rights reserved.

ISBN-13: 978-1514390290

ISBN-10: 1514390299

All pictures are from www.wikipedia.com and www.google.com

               INDEX  

The atoms

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sodium, Chlorine

Molecules in the air

Nitrogen, (N2)

Oxygen (O2)

Ozone (O3)

Water (H2O)

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)  

Nitric oxide (NO)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Molecules of fuel

Methane (CH4)  

Ethane (C2H6)

Propane (C3H8)

Butane (C4H10)

Pentane (C5H12)

Hexane (C6H14)

Heptane (C7H16)

Octane (C8H18)

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

Aldehydes and Ketones

Formaldehyde

Acetone

Sugars, Alcohols and Ethers 

Sugars
Glucose (C6H12O6₎

Fructose (C6H12O6)

Sucrose (C12H22O11)

Cellulose (C6H10O5)n

Alcohols

Methanol, also known as wood alcohol (CH3OH)

Ethanol also called ethyl alcohol, or grain alcohol, (CH3CH2OH)

Glycerol

Ethers

Dimethyl ether

Acids, bases and salts

Formic acid (HCOOH)

Acetic acid (CH3COOH)

Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH)

Vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid, or simply ascorbate

Sodium hydroxide, also known as caustic soda, or lye (NaOH)

Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)

Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Ammonia (NH3)

Urea (CO(NH2)2)

Esters

Ethyl acetate

Fat Molecules

Saturated,     Unsaturated,    Trans

Cholesterol,

Omega-3 fatty acids 

Tocopherol, or Vitamin E,

Protein molecules

Alanine

Solvent molecules

Benzene (C6H6)

Cyclohexane (C6H12)

Toluene

Acetone (CH₃(CO)CH₃)

Turpentine

Tetrachloroethylene (Cl₂C=CCl₂)

Molecules of color

Methyl red

Methyl orange

Methyl yellow,

Methyl violet

Chlorophyll

Carotene

Molecules of smell and taste

Menthol

Geraniol

Linalool

Diacetyl

Decanoic acid, or capric acid

Ethyl acetate

Butanone,

Butyric acid

n-Butyl acetate,

Amyl butyrate

Diallyl disulfide

Asparagusic acid

Molecules for emotions

Dopamine (C₆H₃(OH)₂-CH₂-CH₂-NH₂)

ATP (C₁₀H₈N₄O₂NH₂(OH)₂(PO₃H)₃H)

Epinephrine or adrenaline

Testosterone,

Estrogens 

Hemoglobin,

DDT (ClC₆H₄)₂CH(CCl₃)

Cyanides

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)  

Prussian blue (Fe₇(CN)

Sodium cyanide (NaCN)

Explosive molecules

Nitro compounds

Nitrate

Nitroglycerin (NG),

Trinitrotoluene (TNT), (C6H2(NO2)3CH3)

Drug molecules

Stimulants

Cocain

Methamphetamine (C10H15N)

Caffeine

Nicotine

Amphetamine

Methylphenidate (MPH)

Analgesics

Aspirin

Paracetamol or acetaminophen 

Codeine or methylmorphine (C18H21NO3)

Morphine (C17H19NO3) 

Antibiotics

Penicillin (PCN) (R-C9H11N2O4S), where R is a variable side chain.

Tetracycline (C22H24N2O8)

Sedatives

Barbiturates

Ambien or Zolpidem

Anesthetics

Procaine (Nonocaine)

Anti-impotence agents

Sildenafil citrate, sold under the names Viagra, Revatio

Hallucinogens

Tetrahydrocannabinol, (THC)

Lysergic acid diethylamide, (LSD),

Crystals and Molecules in the earth

Diamond

Graphite

Halite

Molecules in the laboratory

Styrene (C6H5CH=CH2)

Methylmethacrylate (Plexiglass) (CH2=C(CH3)COOCH3)

Nylon

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) better known as Teflon

Tetraoxygen also called Oxozone (O4)

Red oxygen (O4) in a crystal lattice.

Tetrahedrane (C4H4)

Cubane (C8H8)

Dodecahedrane (C20H20)

Basketane (C10H12)

Fullerene

Graphene

Nanotubes

Chemical processes

Platonic solids

Crystals and Molecules

The ingredients for crystals and molecules are the atoms that are cooked in stars. 

A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an ordered pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. In addition to their microscopic structure, large crystals are usually identifiable by their macroscopic geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations.

Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt. Most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i.e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, and ice. A third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics.

A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge.

Organic molecules are based on carbon atoms that are dressed in Hydrogen and decorated with mainly Oxygen and Nitrogen atoms.  They are made by life, either in living bodies, or by scientists in laboratories.  Although many of the molecules have very similar shapes, they have very different functions. Like different types of animals, many have distinctive head and tails with a body in the middle that varies in size. The organic molecules are like keys that all look the same, but all open different locks. 

Representing molecules

Molecules can be represented in various ways. Balls and sticks are traditionally used. Balls and sticks show the shape of molecules 3 dimensionally. The disadvantage of balls and sticks is that they do not clearly show the bonds. As well the balls get in the way as you cannot easily see what is behind the balls in larger crystals. Drawings of the molecular formulas show the bonds but fail to show the molecule`s shape. CHONX STIX shows both the shape and the bonds of molecules. They can be ordered by contacting the author at andrewvecsey@hotmail.com . This booklet shows various molecules with the 3 ways of representing them - ball and stick, chemical formula and with CHONX STIX.

The atoms

Atoms are composed of positively charged protons an equal amount of negatively charged electrons. Each proton is bonded to one electron, cancelling their charges and making the atom neutral.  Electrons of atoms can be paired or unpaired. Electrons from one atom bond with electrons from another atom to form molecules. When electrons of one atom bond with electrons from other atoms, they form single bonds. When atoms are bonded by 2 single bonds, the bond is called a double bond. When atoms are bonded by 3 single bonds, the bond is called a triple bond. Think of bonds between 2 atoms like two acrobats holding each other using their hands and feet.   Different atoms are grouped together in families.

The family of atoms led by hydrogen have 1 or more unpaired electrons that are so loosely held that it easily breaks away from its proton leaving the atoms as positive ions in a sea of free electrons.  This gives these atoms metallic properties of luster, malleability and thermal and electrical conductivity.

The family of atoms led by carbon have 2 unpaired electrons, making the atoms ideal for forming bonds with atoms on either side resulting in strings of atoms called polymers seen in plants and plastics.  When carbon forms bonds with other carbons, the bonds are strong enough to form stable molecules but weak enough to be easily broken by external forces like temperature. This allows types of molecules to form that are necessary for life

The family of atoms led by nitrogen have 3 unpaired electrons allowing them to bond in such a way as to link the polymer carbon strings into 3 dimensional structures like proteins. The 3 bonds of the atoms form bonds so tight that they are explosive when broken. 

The family of atoms led by oxygen have 2 unpaired electrons that cut and tear atoms from their molecules causing burning, fire and rust, or form bonds with atoms forming molecules such as water and alcohol. The bonds formed by oxygen are strong enough not to be easily broken by external forces like temperature.

The family of atoms called Halogens are led by fluorine and have 1 unpaired electron that is so tightly held that when they pair with other unpaired electrons of other atoms; they tear the atoms apart, stealing their electron. When this happens, these atoms become negative charged ions with electrical properties. Atoms of this family, when ionized, bond easily with positively charged metal ions that have lost their electrons forming salts. 

The family of atoms called Noble gases are led by helium. And have 0 unpaired electrons. Their paired electrons are very tightly held and do not bond with any other atoms.  

All atoms of the same family have the same number of unpaired electrons and have similar shapes and properties. In the figure below, unpaired electrons are shown elongated and yellow, and paired electrons are shown spherical and blue.

Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant element forming almost 75% of the universe. Hydrogen is the smallest atom with 1 proton and 1 unpaired electron. In the sun, hydrogen atoms are fused together to form all the other atoms. Hydrogen forms bonds with its one and only unpaired electron with most other types of atoms to form many types of molecules. Molecules with hydrogen form a very gently bond between them called the hydrogen bond. It is what holds water together in a drop. Because all other atoms are made from hydrogen in the sun, it is like a baby and has a baby’s face.

Hydrogen can easily break apart into its component proton and electron when tightly held by other atoms in the molecule and when sufficiently bombarded by other molecules. Hydrogen losing its protruding proton is the cause of acid reactions, like a sour baby losing his pacifier. The heat and light from stars arise mainly from the fusion of hydrogen into helium. Hydrogen forms more compounds than any other element even though it can bond with only one other element and only with a single bond.   

Metals

Metals have one or more very loosely held unpaired electrons. They are loosely held by the atom because they are crowded out by the many paired electrons that metal atoms have. When electrons break away, they leave a positive charged metal ion swimming in a negatively charged sea of electrons. Electric current flows when the sea of electrons all move in the same direction like a swarm of bees.  Metals atoms are like bees that too easily lose their stinger.

Carbon Family

Elements in this family include Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn), and Lead (Pb).They all have 2 tightly held unpaired electrons which form chains with other molecules to make string like compounds that loop and form sheets and crystals. This is the shape that allows the closest packing of spheres allowing the hardest crystal, the diamond, to form. Their 2 unpaired electrons, like hands, form gentle bonds with most other types of atoms. Carbon forms chains with other carbon atoms that are the backbone of all life.  Hydrogen is very attracted to carbon, because carbon is like a woman, forming gentle bonds and attracting hydrogen. It has a woman’s face.

Carbon (C) is the 3rd most available element in the universe and is found in its free form in nature as diamonds, graphite and coal. The shape of the atom is a tetrahedron with 4 corners. There are 2 unpaired electrons to form 2 bonds with other atoms in 2 directions forming chain structures. In addition there are 2 paired electrons that form bonds with other atoms that dress and cover the carbon chains. It is these carbon chains that make up and feed all of life.

Sheets of carbon atoms form graphite. Like randomly aligned snowflakes, graphite forms a slippery material similar to snow and ice. The graphite sheets are indented much like corrugated cardboard and when enough pressure is applied to align them and lock them to each other, they form 3 dimensional structures as displayed by diamond crystals.

Carbon forms compounds with hydrogen called hydrocarbons (petroleum) that fuel our civilization. C is an essential component for life as it easily combines with itself and with many other elements allowing the formation of rings and long chain molecules required for complex development of life. The figures below show single and double bonds between the carbon atoms. As the carbon chain gets longer, the molecules change from gases to liquids and then to solids. Earth gases like methane have chains with up to 5 carbons.  Liquid gasoline has up to 8 carbons, fuel oils like kerosene and diesel have over 8 carbons, lubricating oils and grease have over 20 and solids like paraffin wax have 20-40 carbon atoms in their chain. Rubbers and plastics are polymers made up of an indefinite large number of carbons in a chain.

Just as carbon is required for the development of life, Silicon (Si), its heavier brother, is required for the development of computers. Si forms 70% of the land mass of earth in the form of sand and rocks and glass, asbestos, mica, clay, talc, quartz, topaz, garnet, and agate. Silicon in the form of SiO2, the oxide of silicon, unlike CO2, is a crystalline solid because of the single bonds it forms with O (-O-Si-O-Si-O-) forming a network like diamond. It creates either massive hard and brittle crystals or powders consisting of tiny crystals too small to be seen with an optical microscope. They form boulders a few meters in diameter break up into smaller rock pieces called gravel. Sand cemented to form sandstone by nature and concrete by man. Mud and even smaller pieces called silt ground by glaciers form mudstones and siltstones. Clay pieces form claystones by nature and porcelains by man. Granite, solidified molten Si crystals hardened by the pressures of the earth break down into rock which breaks down into sand. Limestone, sediment of sand cemented with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from seashells forms. Marble is recrystallized limestone buried deep underground under the oceans.

Silicones are nontoxic inorganic polymer chain of SiOSiOSiO... By adjusting the size of the chain, fluids, resins, and rubbers used in lubricants, water repellents, waxes and polishes and non-static coatings are produced. They are far more resistant to oxidation than organic polymers because the Si-O bond is stronger than the C-C bond. The chain is easily twisted and rotates preventing close contact. This causes a lower freezing point, useful for motor oils. It is used as silly putty, bathtub caulk, and breast implants.

Silicate fibers are similar to cellulose and cellophane which are based on chains of carbon.

Nature made rock fibers like mica (Metals-Si8-O20-(OH)4) and asbestos (Metals-Si8-O22-(OH)2) are based on chains of silicon and have metals such as Ca, Na, Mg, Fe and Al on their chains, making them toxic when inhaled.

Man-made rock fibers like rock wool made like cotton candy, fiberglass made like cloth and fiber cement made like cardboard do not have metals on their chains.

Silica Gel is formed when sodium carbonate from sea shells and silicon dioxide from sand melt and the carbons and silicon atoms trade positions. They form sodium silicate and carbon dioxide:  (Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO2)  While CaCO3 dissolves only slightly in water making what is called hard water, NaSiO3 dissolves readily in water forming a basic solution called water glass.  When water glass is heated to 100–105 °C, the water evaporates leaving behind a residue of granular glass called Silica Gel with pores 2.4 nanometers diameter and with a very strong affinity for water molecules. Silica Gel granules are used as a desiccant to keep things dry.

Nitrogen Family

Elements in this family (N, P, As, Sb and Bi) have a shape with 3 tightly held unpaired electrons which form bonds with other molecules.

Nitrogen (N) is the 4th most available element in the human body and makes up 80% of air. It is used in amines which form amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, and nucleic acids, the building blocks of DNA. These atoms offer 3 unpaired electrons which bond with other atoms in 3 directions and tie 2 dimensional carbon chains into complex 3 dimensional forms called proteins. Nitrogen forms very tight triple bonds that when broken release great amounts of explosive energy as in explosives and bombs.

Like a net that spiders build to trap and capture insects, or like the net society builds to capture and hold information, nature builds net like structures using nitrogen to capture and store light energy to be used by plants and to hold and carry oxygen so that animals can burn the plants for energy.

Chlorophyll in plants like a kite is a ring of 4 nitrogen atoms in a web of carbon with a long trailing chain. 4 nitrogen atoms hold a magnesium atom which on absorbing photons causes electrons to hop from one atom to another down the tail. This flow of electrons is used as an energy source much like a current of electricity from a battery or from lightning hitting a kite.

Haemoglobin in animals is a similar structure to chlorophyll. The 4 nitrogen atoms hold an iron atom which carries an oxygen atom to cells which remove the oxygen and use it to burn the carbohydrates for energy that the plants produced from light.

Proteins are chains of amino acids. Amino acids are molecules with two heads. A COOH acid head and a NH2 head on a tail or chain made up of C, H, O and N atoms. All proteins in the human body are made up of only 20 amino acids. 11 of the 20 can be produced by our DNA. 9 must be produced by DNA of other life forms, making us dependant on them. All enzymes, hormones, and tissues in the human body, except fat, are made of protein.  

Oxygen Family

Elements (O, S, Se, Te, and Po) have a shape with 2 tightly held unpaired electrons which like hands form bonds with other molecules. At the same time the 2 unpaired electrons are so tightly held by the nucleus, they often break apart molecules like a karate fighter.

Oxygen (O) is the 5th most abundant element in the universe. It makes up 20% of air and is essential to sustain and fuel life. Oxygen offers 2 unpaired electrons for forming 2 very tight bonds with many types of atoms. They form oxides with most metals (except Gold, Platinum and Mercury) corroding the metals forming rust and tarnish. It bonds with hydrogen to make water. Because oxygen is like a fireman or like a policeman, it has a man’s face.

2 atoms join to form molecules of O2. 3 atoms form ozone (O3) that like umbrellas shield us from harmful radiation. Oxygen bonds with 2 hydrogen atoms forming water (H2O) vital for life.
It bonds with carbon forming carbon dioxide (CO2) to make dry ice, to feed the plants and to bubble our soda. Too much CO2 in the air causes the air to act like glass (SiO2) in a greenhouse to trap the heat causing global warming.

It bonds with nitrogen forming laughing gas (N2O) to make us light headed.  The centre N alternates from having 2 double bonds to having a single and a triple bond.

It forms nitric oxide (NO) used by mammals as a cell signalling molecule.  It forms nitro-glycerine, a powerful explosive.

The shape of oxygen with 2 unpaired electrons, like hands, allows oxygen to easily bond on each side. The atom's shape also causes oxidation of molecules by cutting up and tearing them apart when it is freely rotating and swinging its hands.

Oxygen atoms cut up long chains of carbon built by plants into their smaller constituents. Like the cracking sound emitted when breaking twigs, energy is released when breaking carbon chains. This energy is used by animals when they break down carbon chains from the plants they eat and digest. The end products of this burning is CO2 and H2O which are released into the air like smoke from a fire. The plants use CO2, H2O and sunlight to rebuild the long carbon chains so that the production of energy and materials necessary for animal life can be sustained by the cycle.

Oxidation

Oxidation of materials is a breakdown by burning. Oxygen is one of the strongest oxidizing agents.  When metals are oxidized, they cause oxides of metals. When the metal is iron, iron oxide or rust is produced. When hydrocarbons are oxidized, they cause oxides of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxides of hydrogen in the form of water (H2O) to be produced. When carbohydrates like cellulose, sugars and alcohols are oxidized in a controlled slow manner, they cause these compounds to slowly break up forming intermediate compounds. Sugars are oxidized into alcohols, and alcohols are oxidized into acids. When fats become rancid by being slowly oxidized, aldehydes and ketones with strong odors are produced. Our body oxidizes fats into sugars.  Eventually all compounds when fully oxidized break down into CO2 and H2O.

When the energetic bonding capability of oxygen is regulated and controlled, complex stable molecule chains form, like carbohydrates and acids.

When hydrocarbon chains are capped with OH, carbohydrates, the building blocks of plants and the fuel of animals like alcohols and sugars are formed. Animals use oxygen from air to break down and burn the carbon chains of carbohydrates from plants into H2O and CO2 when they eat and digest the plants. The plants, using sunlight energy, take H2O and CO2 from air to rebuild these long chains of carbohydrates and return the oxygen to the air.  

CO2 is the by-products of machines when they burn hydrocarbons and a by-product of animals when they burn carbohydrates. One car emits about 2000kg of CO2 a year while a human, about 360kg a year. Looking at it another way, a human emits per day about 900g of CO2 but a hamburger has a CO2 footprint of about 3000 g and a litre  carbonated drink like Coca-Cola has 4.4 g of CO2. Too much CO2 in the air causes a global warming greenhouse effect.

CO2, like SiO2 is a bit strange in its properties. It has a boiling / condensing point lower than the freezing / melting point causing the solid form (dry ice) to boil into gas before melting into liquid. Like glass, it acts as a greenhouse causing global warming. When there is too much CO2 in the air, nature eventually goes into deep freeze with an ice age and puts an end to any more CO2 production for a while. It`s nature’s way of keeping life and machines in check. CO2 is a gas at room temperatures because oxygen forms double bonds with carbon (O=C=O) creating small single molecules.

Alcohols are hydrocarbon tails (R) with (OH) heads. Chained alcohols form sugars, and chained sugars form starches. When the tail is very long, containing more than 10,000 carbon atoms, cellulose is formed. Cellulose, also known as dietary fibre, is the structural component of green plants forming 30% of all plant matter. Wood has 50% cellulose while cotton has 90%. Cellulose is used to make paper sheets, cellophane sheets and rayon strings.   

When sugars are oxidized in a controlled manner, they break down into alcohols. Sugars are broken down into alcohols by bacteria when they ferment fruit juices. When alcohol is further oxidized in a controlled manner, the hydrocarbon chains (R) are capped with (COOH) heads forming organic acids the building blocks of fats and proteins.

The strong bonds of oxygen give acids and bases their functionality.

When hydrogen is held on a molecule by 2 oxygen atoms, as it is in acids (COOH), the bond to hydrogen is so strong that when hydrogen is knocked away, the 2 oxygen atoms keep and hold hydrogen`s electron behind. The protruding proton breaks off breaking hydrogen in two and leaving the molecule as a negatively charged ion.

When hydrogen is held on a metal molecule by oxygen, as it is in bases (OH), the bond to the molecule is such that when the oxygen and hydrogen are torn away, the tightly bonding oxygen tears out an electron from the metal leaving the metal a positively charged ion. This allows ionic and electrolytic reactions of acids and bases to take place and is necessary for life.

Solid fats and liquid oils are composed of 3 chains of carbon connected in the middle by a 4th shorter carbon chain of 3 carbons as shown in the figure above. Acids combine with the alcohol glycerol to form triglycerides, ester molecules called fats and oils. These fat molecules are essential for forming cell walls and membranes within the cells, as well as for insulating and cushioning it from outside threats. Animals use reserve fat as fuel that the cells burn for energy.

Acids and alcohols combine to form fragrant and tasty ester compounds (RCOOR’) as shown in the figure above. Depending on the length of the acid's tail, and the length of the alcohol's tail, molecules resembling strings of different lengths are formed. Where the acid and alcohol join, an oxygen atom pinches the string with a double bond. Just like different musical notes are produced from a vibrating string depending on its length and where it is pinched, different smells and tastes are produced by these ester molecules.

Ester strings are formed that can be easily joined together by chemists to form polymers much like plants grow cellulose. These polymers called polyesters can be woven and spun into threads and fabrics much like cellulose in cotton is. Esters can be designed for specific qualities by choosing the right alcohol and acid. Many interesting materials can be formed such as very strong Mylar sheets that make bullet proof vests.

When the alcohol head is on a metal atom, esters called soaps are produced. The metal end of the ester string easily dissolves in water. The hydrocarbon tail from the acid easily dissolves in fat and oil. The strings surround oil droplets and like anchors or brooms allow the metal end dissolved in water to drag and flush the oil droplet away.

When 2 hydrocarbon tails are linked by an oxygen atom (ROR’), colourless flammable liquids used as solvents and anaesthetics called ethers are formed.  They are pleasant smelling resembling alcohols and occur naturally in starches and sugars. They are widely used in industry and in making pharmaceuticals.

When 2 hydrocarbon tails are linked by 2 oxygen atoms (ROOR’), peroxides used in the chemistry industry are formed. When the tails consist of only 1 hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide (HOOH) used as a bleach and disinfectant is formed. When hydrogen peroxide comes into contact with blood protein, it bubbles into water (H2O) and oxygen gas (O2).

When certain alcohols are oxidized, highly reactive compounds called aldehydes are formed with double bonds to the oxygen atom. They are used in manufacturing resins, dyes, and organic acids.  Formaldehyde from methyl alcohol is a colourless toxic water soluble gas used as a disinfectant and preservative, and in the manufacture of resins and plastics.

When CO atoms link 2 hydrocarbon tails (R’COR), compounds called ketones like acetone are produced. Acetone is a colourless, volatile, highly flammable liquid that is widely used as a solvent, paint thinner, and nail-polish remover.

When the acids contain nitrogen, nitrogen's properties come out. These acids called amino acids form chains called proteins. The much smaller nucleic acids form twisting chains as seen in DNA. These amino acids are chains similar to esters. Like esters, they are formed by nature into materials like wool and silk, and by chemists into poly amides like nylons.

Sulphur (S), oxygen's heavier brother, is used for making bonds with its 2 unpaired electrons. Just like Oxygen bonds atoms together to form stable molecules, Sulphur bonds molecules together to form stable compounds. Sulphur is used in the vulcanization of rubber by cross linking the individual polymer chains. Selenium (Se) conducts electricity better in the light than in the dark so it is found in photocells, electrical components that detect light.

Halogens

Elements in this family have a shape with one very tightly held unpaired electron which forms very strong bonds with other molecules. They are the gases Fluorine (F) and Chlorine (Cl), the liquid Bromine (Br) and the solid Iodine (I).  They are more reactive than the alkali metals and even light will cause a reaction. They react with metals forming salts. Because of their attracting powers, they are like attractive flowers.

Their shape allows the lone unpaired electron of the halogen atom to have an empty space the size of an unpaired electron right beside it.  When an unpaired electron from another atom (like hydrogen) happens to be bumping into the halogen, the 2 unpaired electrons from each of the two atoms synchronize and pair together like a snap button, making molecules like HCl. HCl has the proton of the H atom sticking out and is very vulnerable to be knocked off leaving the Cl atom a negatively charged ion (Cl-).

Halogen ions, like Cl-, bond with metal ions, like Na+, forming salts, like NaCl. The negative charge of the Cl- ions attracts the positive charge of the metal ions and the Cl- ion penetrates the opened part of the Na+ metal ion forming the table salt NaCl.

Teflon is a chain of carbon atoms covered by a coating of F atoms instead of H atoms as is the case in hydrocarbons. Things do not stick to Teflon because the F atoms fit over the otherwise sharp unpaired electrons of the carbon chain like smooth snap buttons over barbs in a barbed wire. The smooth outward facing side of the F atom with its paired electrons so optimally and tightly fit that it leaves no empty space or no slightly sticking out electrons. This results in a very smooth and thus non sticky surface.

When these Teflon strands are woven into a sheet with micro pores, a textile called Gore-Tex is formed. The fabric is as smooth and impervious to water molecules like a mirror is to light. At the same time, its pores allow individual water vapour molecules in the air called humidity to pass through. It is impervious to water because it has a very smooth surface that does not tear and break up water droplets that are held together in a drop by the special bonds called hydrogen bonds.

Hydrogen bonds are attractions between atoms due to the slightly positive charge of the protruding protons of the hydrogen of one molecule which are attracted to the slightly negative charge of the oxygen of another molecule.

Chlorine reacts with water to form disinfectants and bleaches. Chlorine reacts with water producing hydrochloric acid and oxygen which kill most bacteria. The oxygen reacts and destroys portions of molecules that absorb light of specific wavelengths causing colours to be bleached white. 

Fluorine in water and toothpaste kill bacteria that produce cavity forming acids. All of the halogens and their compounds are very poisonous because of their activity. Because of their activity, they are not found free in nature, but are always combined in compounds. When freed by man's industries, they readily combine with O3 in the air destroying them.  Ozone (O3) molecules are like protective umbrellas blocking harmful radiations from disturbing delicate forms such as life.